Chapter 6 - Public Opinion, Voting, and Elections Multiple Choice Questions 1. Political attitudes can first be measured A. in infancy. B. in young children. C. in teenagers. D. in young adults. E. at age 21. 2. All of the following are true concerning voter turnout EXCEPT A. voter turnout is highest in presidential elections. B. voter turnout is higher in general elections than in primary elections. C. voter turnout is higher in local elections than in national elections. D. voter turnout is higher in primary elections than in special elections. E. voter turnout is higher in presidential elections than in midterm elections. 3. The Florida and Ohio cases in these years demonstrate that our country has a lot of work to do to make how we vote fair and transparent to all voters. A. 1992 and 2000 B. 1996 and 2002 C. 2000 and 2004 D. 1980 and 1998 E. 1988 and 2000 4. In 2002 Congress passed the _______________ to modernize voting procedures, which mandating that states maintain accurate statewide voter registration lists. A. Help America Vote Act B. Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act C. Motor Voter Act D. National Election Modernization Act E. Voting Fairness Act 5. The distribution of individual preferences or evaluation of a given issue, candidate, or institution within a population is called A. cumulative attitudes. B. public opinion. C. individual preference. D. distribution. E. consensus. 6. The proportion of the population that holds one opinion or viewpoint as compared to those with opposing opinions or those with no opinion at all is termed A. public opinion. B. individual preference. C. difference of viewpoints. D. distribution. E. consensus. 7. When every individual in a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample, it is said to be A. open ended. B. a random sample. C. specific sampling. D. appropriate. E. a weighted sample. 8. In a random sample, A. individuals are chosen for the sample based on their proportion in the population. B. only a neutral, independent party may select individuals for the sample. C. the probability of any person being chosen for the sample is impossible to determine. D. only individuals with real opinions are eligible for being selected. E. every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. 9. In order to achieve a margin of error of plus or minus 3%, a sample should be at least ______ individuals. A. 100 B. 1 million C. 100,000 D. 1,000 E. 250 10. Table 6-1 demonstrates that A. obtaining random samples is relatively unimportant for measuring public opinion. B. most people oppose abortion under all circumstances. C. the wording of questions and responses is important when measuring public opinion. D. the margin of error is not affected by the size of samples. E. All of these. 11. Open-ended questions A. are easier to record and compare than closed-ended questions. B. permit respondents to answer in their own words rather than by choosing responses from set categories. C. make it difficult for respondents to express their views clearly. D. can never provide deep insight into respondents' thinking. E. are impossible to administer on surveys. 12. When a substantial percentage of a sample of the population agree on an issue there is a A. preference. B. belief. C. consensus. D. fervor. E. majority mentality. 13. When two opposing sides feel intensely about an issue and the difference between the major alternatives is wide (such as the Vietnam War), the public is said to be A. uninformed. B. distinct. C. undemocratic. D. polarized. E. consensual. 14. How strongly people hold beliefs, or the degree to which those beliefs are held, is termed A. reliability. B. intensity. C. fervor. D. patriotism. E. consistency. 15. Survey questions asking people how strongly they feel about an issue or about a politician are designed to measure A. intensity. B. consistency. C. fervor. D. reliability. E. patriotism. 16. Survey questions asking people how strongly they feel about an issue or about a politician are often called A. dichotomies. B. true/false questions. C. closed-ended questions. D. parameters. E. scales. 17. Political opinions that exist but have not been fully expressed are said to be A. latent. B. uninformed. C. salient. D. random. E. salient. 18. A widely shared and consciously held view is called a A. polarized position. B. tragic consensus. C. manifest opinion. D. random sample. E. manifest destiny. 19. After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the need for homeland security became a widely shared and consciously held view among Americans. This is an example of a(n) A. conceding consensus. B. polarization. C. private position. D. manifest opinion. E. public opinion. 20. The extent to which people feel issues are relevant to them is called A. informed. B. latent. C. intensity. D. salience. E. important. 21. The process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs is called A. learning. B. education. C. political socialization. D. indoctrination. E. behavioral programming. 22. Political attitudes which underlie a consciousness of the nation-state and of belonging to that entity are called A. patriotism. B. nationalism. C. loyalty. D. inclusion. E. fanaticism. 23. Political attitudes may stem from religious, racial, gender, ethnic, or economic beliefs and values, but ALL are formed A. individually. B. without thought or reflection. C. based on media influences. D. through participation in groups. E. in college. 24. The most powerful socializing agent is A. the family. B. the internet. C. peers. D. television. E. schools. 25. Sources of American public opinion include A. mass media. B. religious and ethnic heritage. C. schools. D. families E. All of these. 26. Individuals choosing to access media with which they agree or avoiding media with which they disagree is called A. tendency reinforcement. B. stereotype challenging. C. limited attention. D. selective exposure. E. discriminant analysis. 27. A conservative friend of yours avoids reading the New York Times because she believes it is a liberal newspaper. This is an example of A. discriminant analysis. B. limited attention. C. tendency reinforcement. D. stereotype challenging. E. selective exposure. 28. Figure 6-1 shows that A. opinion on abortion tends to be highly unstable. B. the percentage of people with favorable opinions toward President Bush changed over his time in office. C. pro-choice opinions rose dramatically in the 1980s. D. President Bush was more popular in office than was President Clinton. E. None of these. 29. Information held by the general public concerning congressional names and issues indicate A. few people know the names of their congressmen. B. most constituents know where their members of Congress stand on important issues. C. most people had a surprisingly high level of information. D. most people know the names of both candidates in congressional elections. E. most people can provide detailed information about the backgrounds of their members of Congress. 30. Approximately twenty-five percent of the population is interested in politics most of the time. They are called the A. smart ones. B. public spirited people. C. attentive public. D. core constituents. E. disillusioned minority. 31. Approximately __________ of the population is interested in politics most of the time. A. 90% B. 75% C. 50% D. 25% E. 2% 32. Figure 6-2 shows that the percent of people knowing about which of the following is the highest? A. that Oprah Winfrey campaigned for Barack Obama B. who the majority leader of the U.S. Senate is C. how many U.S. troops have been killed in Iraq D. which political party holds a majority in the House of Representatives E. what country Hugo Chavez is the president of 33. People who are rarely interested in politics or public affairs and seldom vote are called A. the attentive public. B. irrational residents. C. political know-nothings. D. in-betweeners. E. part-time citizens. 34. The 40% of the people who selectively participate in elections are called A. apathetic public. B. representative citizens. C. core constituents. D. the attentive public. E. part-time citizens. 35. Figure 6-3 shows that approximately ________ of people watch campaigns on television. A. 100% B. 85% C. 65% D. 35% E. 5% 36. A system designed to reduce voter fraud by limiting voting to those who have established eligibility to vote by submitting the proper documents is called A. voter suppression. B. Republican strategizing. C. voter registration. D. voter qualification. E. citizen verification. 37. The ___________________, signed in1965 by President Johnson, removed restrictions that kept African Americans from voting. A. Fifteenth Amendment B. Nineteenth Amendment C. Twenty-Third Amendment D. Voting Rights Act E. Twenty-Fourth Amendment 38. Automatic registration is practiced by A. only the United States. B. most of the world's democracies. C. all authoritarian countries. D. no countries in the world. E. None of these. 39. Compared to most other democracies, turnout in American elections A. is about the same. B. is significantly higher. C. is impossible to measure. D. is lower. E. is a little bit higher. 40. Compared to other countries, Americans hold A. more elections for more offices. B. fewer elections for more offices. C. fewer elections for fewer offices. D. more elections for fewer offices. E. the same number of elections for the same number of offices. 41. Elections in which voters elect officeholders are called A. primary elections. B. referenda. C. caucuses. D. general elections. E. turnout elections. 42. When two or more Democrats compete against one another to try to become their party's nominee, they compete in a ________ election. A. primary B. recall C. liberal D. corrupt E. retention 43. American voters determine party nominees for the general election in __________ elections. A. referendum B. retention C. recall D. general E. primary 44. Elections held in years when the president is on the ballot are called A. midterm elections. B. special elections. C. off-year elections. D. primary elections. E. presidential elections. 45. Elections held midway between presidential elections are known as A. off-year elections. B. primary elections. C. special elections. D. midterm elections. E. registration elections. 46. Midterm elections elect A. presidents. B. about one third of senators. C. one half of Representatives. D. all governors. E. All of these. 47. Midterm elections are held A. at the same time as presidential elections. B. in odd-numbered years. C. midway between presidential elections. D. only when authorized by Congress. E. to elect state government officials only. 48. The proportion of the voting-age public that votes is the typical measure of A. public opinion. B. political interest. C. the census. D. voter turnout. E. citizen activism. 49. If one were to divide the number of ballots cast in an election by the voting-age public, one would be calculating A. presidential approval. B. voter turnout. C. the census. D. political interest. E. public opinion. 50. The process by which campaigners learn which issues matter to potential voters and which candidates these voters prefer by conducting interviews on the telephone or in person is called a(n) A. canvass. B. focus group. C. strategy session. D. exploratory committee. E. testing trial. 51. Undecided voters are also often called ________ voters. A. committed B. partisan C. clueless D. swing E. competitive 52. Which of the following is true about voter turnout rates? A. men tend to vote more than women. B. Hispanics vote more than blacks. C. blacks vote more than whites. D. Hispanics vote more than whites. E. None of these. 53. Which of the following is true about "Pure Independents?" A. they typically have lower turnout than Democrats and Republicans B. they usually vote for the loser in elections C. they compose about 40% of the American electorate D. they are often more loyal to a party in their voting than are individuals identifying themselves as Democrats or Republicans E. they are not permitted by most states to vote in general elections. 54. How voters feel about a candidate's background, personality, leadership ability, and other personal qualities is known as candidate A. identification. B. incumbency. C. advantage. D. voting. E. appeal. 55. ________________ voting is voting based on what a candidate pledges to do in the future about an issue if elected. A. Candidate appeal B. Prospective issue C. Straight-ticket D. Retrospective issue E. Platform issue 56. Holding incumbents, usually the president's party, responsible for their records on issues, such as the economy or foreign policy is known as A. retrospective issue voting. B. candidate appeal voting. C. straight-ticket voting. D. irrational voting. E. prospective issue voting. 57. Issues that motivate particular segments of the electorate to vote, and on which the opposing candidate or party has a less popular position, are often called A. exploitive issues. B. prospective issues. C. losing issues. D. wedge issues. E. popular issues. 58. The textbook authors argue that voting is important because A. all elections are decided by a handful of votes. B. Americans have so few opportunities to vote since we have so few elections. C. it is required and people have to pay a fine if they fail to vote. D. there are so rarely any real differences between candidates. E. election outcomes have policy consequences. 59. Elections for members of Congress occur A. on the first weekend in September every odd-numbered year. B. on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November in odd-numbered years. C. only during leap years. D. on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November in even-numbered years. E. whenever each state determines that its seats in Congress should be up for election. 60. The proportion of senators who are up for election at any one time is A. one fifth. B. one-third. C. one-half. D. two-thirds. E. all. 61. Members of the House of Representatives are elected for ______ -year terms. A. five B. four C. two D. six E. one 62. Which of the following is NOT true about elections rules in the United States? A. Elections for offices in the national government are held at regularly scheduled intervals. B. Terms of length in office for officials are fixed. C. The president is limited to serving two terms in office. D. All 100 Senate seats are up for election every two years. E. Members of Congress do not have any term limits. 63. A politician who cannot, or has announced he or she will not, run again for his/her office is called A. a quitter. B. a lame duck. C. an enigma. D. a term limit. E. an incumbent. 64. The _____________ Amendment limited the president to two terms in office. A. First B. Thirty-Fifth C. Seventeenth D. Fifth E. Twenty-Second 65. Term limits for members of the U.S. Congress can be imposed only by A. state legislatures. B. congressional legislation. C. a public referendum. D. constitutional amendment. E. the president. 66. The idea that the simple majority single-ballot system of election fosters a two-party system because a minor party cannot elect representatives is known as A. Duverger's Law. B. Washington's Dilemma. C. party system determinism. D. Almond's Axiom. E. Partido Principle. 67. An election system in which the candidate with the most votes wins is called A. first-to-the-backstretch. B. proportional representation. C. direct voting. D. winner-take-all. E. multimember districts. 68. An electoral district in which voters choose one representative or official is known as (a) A. proportional representation. B. single-member district. C. dominant-party district. D. legislative district. E. gerrymandering. 69. In most winner-take-all elections in the United States, in order to gain office a candidate must A. receive more votes than any other candidate. B. receive an absolute majority of the votes. C. receive a minimum of 2/3 of the votes. D. receive at least 10% more of the vote than his/her nearest competitor. E. None of these. 70. Which of the following is true about proportional representation systems? A. they tend to be associated with the existence of only two major parties competing in elections B. they have been ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court C. they encourage participation of third and minor parties in elections D. they are not currently used by any countries in the world E. they are used by twenty states to choose members for their state legislatures 71. This system allows political parties to secure legislative seats and power in proportion to the number of votes they receive in the election. A. cumulative voting B. winner-take-all system C. direct voting D. proportional representation E. single-member districts 72. Which of the following is NOT true about proportional representation systems? A. They more accurately reveal the division of voter preferences than do winner-take all systems. B. They may encourage voter turnout, particularly among people who identify with parties that don't typically win elections. C. They may encourage issue-oriented campaigns. D. They may enhance representation of women and minorities. E. They encourage the formation of two ideologically moderate political parties. 73. The framers of the U.S. Constitution created the electoral college because they A. wanted a proportional representation system for the presidency. B. desired to make it impossible for candidates from large states to become president. C. wanted to encourage states to use multimember districts for their legislatures. D. did not trust the choice of president to a direct vote of the people. E. All of these. 74. To be elected president, a candidate must receive A. a plurality of electoral votes. B. a majority of electoral votes. C. a majority of states as well as electoral votes. D. a majority of the popular vote. E. All of these. 75. If no candidate wins a majority of the electoral college votes, the president is chosen by A. the House of Representatives. B. the Senate. C. direct popular vote D. the Supreme Court. E. state legislatures. 76. When no candidate wins a majority in the electoral college, the House of Representatives chooses a president from A. the Senate. B. one of the governors of the states. C. among its own members. D. among the top three electoral recipients of electoral votes. E. the Supreme Court. 77. Which of the following is NOT true about the electoral college? A. State legislatures are free to determine how the states choose their electors. B. Each party nominates a slate of electors (who are usually longtime party workers) in each state. C. Most states use a winner-take-all system to allocate their electoral votes. D. No "faithless elector" has ever cast the deciding vote in a presidential election. E. A candidate does not need a majority of electoral votes to win the election. 78. The method for choosing presidential electors is determined by A. party leaders. B. party caucus. C. state legislatures. D. the House of Representatives. E. the Supreme Court. 79. All states EXCEPT ________ and _________ award all of their electoral votes to the winner of the popular vote in their states. A. California, New York B. Ohio, Pennsylvania C. Texas, Florida D. Maine, Nebraska E. Iowa, New Hampshire 80. A state's electoral vote is determined by A. its population. B. previous voting patterns in presidential elections. C. a complicated formula devised by Congress. D. the number of square miles in the state. E. the number of its representatives and senators. 81. In the 2000 presidential election A. Al Gore won the popular vote while George Bush won a majority in the electoral college. B. George Bush narrowly won the popular vote and received 487 electoral votes. C. Al Gore and George Bush received an identical number of electoral votes. D. no candidate received a majority of electoral votes. E. George Bush won the popular vote while Al Gore won a majority in the electoral college. 82. In how many elections has the winner of the popular vote not become president? A. six B. ten C. four D. one E. two 83. The boost that candidates may get in an election because of the popularity of presidential candidates from their party is called the ____ effect. A. party bonus B. presidential plus C. trickle-down D. coattail E. straight-line 84. In all of the midterm elections between 1942 and 1994 A. the Democrats gained seats in the House of Representatives. B. the party controlling the White House gained seats in the Senate. C. the party controlling the White House lost seats in the House of Representatives. D. there was no net change in the number of seats held in Congress by the two major parties. E. the Republicans gained seats in the Senate. 85. In which recent midterm election years did the party controlling the White House gain seats in the House of Representatives? A. 1998 and 2006 B. 1990 and 2006 C. 1994 and 1998 D. 1998 and 2002 E. 1994 and 2002 86. Republicans did better in the 1994 midterm elections than at any time since A. 1946. B. 1954. C. 1960. D. 1984. E. 1988. 87. Figure 6-5 shows that Democrats lost the most seats in the House of Representatives in the elections of A. 1998 and 1962. B. 1978 and 1962. C. 1998 and 1974. D. 2002 and 1998. E. 1994 and 1946. 88. Figure 6-5 shows that Republicans lost the most seats in the Senate in the election of A. 2002. B. 1972. C. 1958. D. 1998. E. 1982. 89. In the 1990s, how many House incumbents, on average, were denied renomination in each election? A. 2 B. 35 C. 18 D. 100 E. 13 90. Generally speaking, the first step for would-be challengers in House elections is to A. gain visibility. B. build a personal organization. C. initiate voter registration campaigns. D. collect financial contributions. E. schedule debates with opponents. 91. Serious challengers in House races are A. almost always Republicans. B. hard to find. C. great in number. D. typically found only in southern states. E. None of these. 92. When running for the House of Representatives, a candidate's main hurdle is gaining A. ballot access. B. coalition support. C. signs. D. support from his/her family. E. visibility. 93. Congressional candidates can build personal organizations A. while holding another office, such as a seat in the state legislature. B. by serving in civic causes. C. by helping other candidates. D. by being conspicuous without being controversial. E. All of these. 94. When a candidate relies on personal contacts, hand-shaking, door-to-door campaigning, and seeking positive media attention, he or she is said to be seeking A. positive reinforcement. B. visibility. C. to build a grass-roots foundation. D. ballot position. E. incumbency. 95. The tendency in elections to focus on the personal attributes of a candidate, such as his or her strengths, weaknesses, background, experience, and visibility is known as A. candidate appeal. B. the incumbency advantage. C. party platforms. D. issue-oriented voting. E. the cult of personality. 96. The inclination to focus on national issues, rather than local issues, in an election campaign is called A. candidate appeal. B. the incumbency advantage. C. national tide. D. coattails. E. coalition building. 97. A "permanent Congress" is a result of A. constitutional provisions guaranteeing members of the House of Representatives a minimum of four terms in office. B. advantages held by incumbents. C. coattail effects. D. high levels of competition in House elections. E. the Supreme Court's ruling in Pelosi v. Constituents. 98. Which of the following is true for the House of Representatives about general elections as compared to primary elections? A. turnout is typically lower in general elections B. partisanship is less important in general elections C. fewer independents vote in general elections D. much less money is typically spent on general election campaigns E. None of these are true. 99. Candidates for the House of Representatives in districts where their party is strong A. tend to deemphasize partisanship. B. usually lose. C. are known as "shoo-ins." D. try to make their partisanship clear. E. have a difficult time raising money. 100. Incumbents are generally better known than challengers, something called A. party loyalty. B. name recognition. C. frequency factors. D. partisan alliance. E. incumbency advantage. 101. Advantages of incumbency include A. name recognition. B. franking privileges. C. more campaign funds. D. service on committees important to their constituents. E. All of these. 102. The free use of the U.S. mail to send communications to constituents by member of Congress is known as A. the franking privilege. B. pork barrel. C. logrolling. D. constituent service. E. name recognition. 103. An election with no incumbent running is called A. a toss-up. B. gerrymandering. C. party polling. D. an open seat. E. a referendum. 104. Compared to House elections, Senate elections A. are typically less competitive. B. feature weaker challengers to incumbents. C. have candidates who are less well-known. D. have lower levels of campaign spending. E. None of these. 105. The period of time before presidential candidates actually declare candidacy, when they try to line up supporters to win caucuses or primaries in key states and to raise money for their nomination effort, is called A. the premature primary. B. the prelude. C. the preliminary primary. D. the invisible primary. E. the race before the race. 106. Most delegates to the national nominating convention are chosen by A. referenda. B. state conventions. C. primary elections. D. state committees. E. party bosses. 107. Presidential primaries, particularly Republican primaries, have two main features-the actual voting for delegates pledged to a candidate and A. a system of public debate and discussion. B. caucuses. C. county conventions. D. a popularity vote, or 'beauty contest' E. writing a party platform. 108. Traditionally, the first states to pick delegates to the national conventions are A. California and Kentucky. B. Iowa and New Hampshire. C. Wyoming and Montana. D. Texas and Florida. E. Rhode Island and Massachusetts. 109. A meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to decide the platform is called a A. caucus. B. convention. C. referendum. D. rally. E. beauty contest. 110. The method of choosing delegates used by the state of Iowa is a A. state nominating convention. B. referendum. C. house party. D. primary. E. caucus. 111. To win their party's nominations, presidential candidates A. are required to win the Iowa caucus. B. must always raise more money than any of their opponents. C. typically have to appeal to the more ideologically intense individuals in their parties. D. usually avoid public appearances. E. try to adopt policy platforms most appealing to moderate, independent voters. 112. A national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules is known as A. a national primary. B. a national party convention. C. the electoral college. D. the party referendum. E. a national party unity rally. 113. A statement of party perspectives on public policy is known as the party's A. record. B. convention. C. list. D. candidacy. E. platform. 114. Presidential candidates are officially nominated by A. party caucuses. B. national party committees. C. national party conventions. D. presidential primaries. E. the electoral college. 115. The entity created by the 1974 amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act to administer election reform laws is called the A. Task Force on Electoral Fairness. B. National Election Agency. C. Joint Committee on Election Oversight. D. Federal Election Commission. E. Agency for the Regulation of National Elections. 116. Soft money refers to A. money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. B. money contributed by political candidates to their own campaigns. C. money contributed to political candidates from other candidates. D. money contributed to a candidate that is limited in amount and fully disclosed. E. None of these. 117. Political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amount and fully disclosed are called A. soft money. B. easy money. C. hard money. D. watchdog money. E. public funding. 118. Money spent by individuals or groups not associated with candidates to elect or defeat candidates for office is known as A. hard money. B. self-financing. C. outside intervention. D. independent expenditures. E. soft money. 119. The most frequently proposed reform for presidential general elections is A. giving every state an equal number of electoral votes. B. direct popular election. C. using an automatic plan that would keep electoral votes but get rid of actual electors. D. moving the election date to the first week of January. E. requiring candidates to win a majority of states to become president. True/False Questions 1. The Help America Vote Act (HAVA), allows voters to cast provisional ballots if there is uncertainty about their registration. 2. The distribution of individual preferences or evaluation of a given issue, candidate, or institution within a population is known as citizen sentiment. 3. All governments in all nations must be concerned with public opinion. 4. The idea that a sample accurately reflects the population within a certain range is known as margin of error. 5. Open-ended questions permit respondents to answer in their own words rather than by choosing responses from set categories. 6. Intensity refers to how strongly people hold beliefs, or the degree to which those beliefs are held. 7. Intensity refers to the extent to which people feel issues are relevant to them. 8. The process by which we develop our political attitudes, values, and beliefs is called behavioral programming. 9. The pluralistic political culture of the United States makes the sources of our views immensely varied. 10. The most powerful socializing agent is family. 11. Political attitudes which underlie a consciousness of the nation-state and of belonging to that entity are called nationalism. 12. Schools have no effect in modeling young citizens' attitudes. 13. Individuals choosing to access media with which they agree or avoiding media with which they disagree is called selective exposure. 14. Core values, such as views on abortion, the death penalty, and doctor-assisted suicide, tend to remain stable over time. 15. Approximately 90% of the population is interested in politics most of the time. 16. People who are rarely interested in politics or public affairs and seldom vote are called political know-nothings. 17. The 40% of the people who selectively participate in elections are called core constituents. 18. Protest is the most common form of political participation. 19. For most people in the United States politics is a private activity. 20. Voting is the least typical political activity in the United States. 21. Since the founding of the country, voting eligibility standards have been expanded. 22. The voting age was lowered to 18 with the ratification of the Twenty-Sixth Amendment in 1971. 23. Citizen verification refers to a system designed to reduce voter fraud by limiting voting to those who have established eligibility to vote by submitting the proper documents. 24. In most democracies around the world, voter registration is automatic. 25. Voter turnout is usually higher in midterm elections than in presidential elections. 26. The United States holds more elections for more offices than any other democracy. 27. Voter turnout is usually measured as the proportion of the entire American population that votes. 28. Education seems to be the strongest predictor of whether or not people vote. 29. Compared to most other democracies, turnout in American elections is lower. 30. In the United States, citizens vote more often and for more offices than citizens of any other democracy. 31. Elections for members of Congress occur on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November of even-numbered years. 32. Members of the U.S. Senate are elected for six-year terms. 33. Members of Congress are limited to serving a maximum of twelve years in each of the two chambers. 34. Members of Congress have fixed terms, meaning the length of a term in office is specified, not indefinite. 35. The Twenty-Second Amendment to the Constitution, adopted in 1951, limits presidents to two terms. 36. No states have term limits for the members of their state legislatures. 37. The system that allows political parties to secure legislative seats and power in proportion to the number of votes they receive in the election is known as winner-take-all. 38. Most electoral districts in the United States are single-member districts. 39. The president and vice president in the United States are chosen indirectly through the electoral college. 40. Maine and Nebraska have a district system in which the candidate who carries each congressional district gets that electoral vote and the candidate who carries the state gets the state's two additional electoral votes. 41. When a presidential election goes to the House of Representatives, each state gets a number of votes equal to the number of members from that state. 42. The results of the presidential elections are formally announced in December after the electors go to their state capitals to cast their ballots for president. 43. Most congressional elections are highly competitive and are determined by a relatively small number of votes. 44. The coattail effect refers to the boost that candidates may get in an election because of the popularity of presidential candidates from their party. 45. Traditionally the president's party has gained seats in the House of Representatives in midterm elections. 46. In all of the midterm elections between 1942 and 1994, the party controlling the White House lost seats in the House of Representatives. 47. In the 2006 elections the Republicans gained seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. 48. Incumbents in the House of Representatives are almost always challenged for renomination from within their own party. 49. Gaining visibility is a candidate's main hurdle when running for the House of Representatives. 50. The incumbency advantage refers to the tendency in elections to focus on the personal attributes of a candidate, such as his or her strengths, weaknesses, background, experience, and visibility. 51. The inclination to focus on national issues, rather than local issues, in an election campaign is called national tide. 52. The power of incumbency tends to be lower in Senate elections than in House elections. 53. The period of time before presidential candidates actually declare of candidacy, when they try to line up supporters to win caucuses or primaries in key states and to raise money for their nomination effort, is called the preliminary primary. 54. The main way of choosing delegates to the Democratic and Republican national conventions is presidential primaries. 55. A meeting of local party members to choose party officials or candidates for public office and to decide the platform is called a referendum. 56. A national meeting of delegates elected in primaries, caucuses, or state conventions who assemble once every four years to nominate candidates for president and vice president, ratify the party platform, elect officers, and adopt rules is known as a national party convention. 57. The Federal Election Commission was created by the 1974 amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act to administer election reform laws.